The first force is learning anxiety. This is the anxiety associated with learning something new. Will I fail? Will I be exposed? The second, competing force is survival anxiety.
This concerns the pressure to change. Will I get left behind? These anxieties can take many forms. In the same way that the stable equilibrium of a team or group membership can foster states of health, instability caused by shifting team roles or the disintegration of a particular group can have an extremely disturbing effect.
What gets in the way of change: resistance to change Leaders and managers of change sometimes cannot understand why individuals and groups of individuals do not wholeheartedly embrace changes that are being introduced.
Schein suggests that there are two principles for transformative change to work: first, survival anxiety must be greater than learning anxiety, and second, learning anxiety must be reduced rather than increasing survival anxiety.
Remember also that the restraining forces may well have some validity. How do you reduce learning anxiety? This could be installing a new piece of software, or learning about how a new organization works. How managers and change agents help others to change We have listed in Table 1.
From the behavioural perspective a manager must ensure that reward policies and performance management is aligned with the changes taking place.
For example if the change is intended to improve the quality of output, then the company should not reward quantity of output. From the cognitive perspective a manager needs to employ strategies that link organizational goals, individual goals and motivation. This will create both alignment and motivation.
An additional strategy is to provide ongoing coaching through the change process to reframe obstacles and resistances. This is about treating people as adults and having mature conversations with them. The psychodynamic approach enables managers to see the benefits of looking beneath the surface of what is going on, and uncovering thoughts that are not being articulated and feelings that are not being expressed.
Working through these feelings can release energy for the change effort rather than manifesting as resistance to change. Drawing on the transitions curve we can plot suitable interventions throughout the process see Figure 1. The humanistic psychology perspective builds on the psychodynamic ethos by believing that people are inherently capable of responding to change, but require enabling structures and strategies so to do.
Once we have learnt something we become far less conscious of our performance. We are then unconsciously competent. This continues until something goes wrong, or there is a new challenge. This leads to behavioural analysis and use of reward strategies. Associated techniques are goal setting and coaching to achieve results. This is especially significant when people are going through highly affecting change.
The emphasis is on healthy development, healthy authentic relationships and healthy organizations. Survival anxiety has to be greater than learning anxiety if a change is to happen. We open with a discussion around what constitutes a group and what constitutes a team.
We will also look at the phenomena of different types of teams: for example, virtual teams, self-organizing teams and project teams. Models of team functioning, change and development will be explored. We look at the various components of teamworking, and at how teams develop and how different types of people combine to make a really effective or not team. This is the forming, storming, norming and performing model.
But we will add to it by differentiating between the task aspects of team development and the people aspects of team development. Finally we look at the way in which teams can impact or react to organizational change.
There has been much academic discussion as to what constitutes a team and what constitutes a group. In much of the literature the two terms are used indistinguishably. Yet there are crucial differences, and anyone working in an organization instinctively knows when he or she is in a team and when he or she is in a group.
We will attempt to clarify the essential similarities and differences. This is important when looking at change because teams and groups experience change in different ways.
Our own list of differentiators appears in Table 2. A group is a collection of individuals who draw a boundary around themselves. Or perhaps we from the outside might draw a boundary around them and thus define them as a group. Its members know exactly who is involved Table 2. Of course it turns out that we are speaking hypothetically here, as any one of us has seen teams within organizations that appear to have no sense at all of what they are really about! Let us illustrate the difference between a team and a group by using an example.
We might look into an organization and see the Finance Department. The Finance Controller heads up a Finance Management Team that leads, manages and coordinates the activities within this area. The team members work together on common goals, meet regularly and have clearly defined roles and responsibilities usually.
Perhaps the senior management team has decreed that all the high potential managers in the organization shall be members of the Strategic Management Group. So the Finance Controller, who is on the high potential list, gets together with others at his or her level to form a collection of individuals who contribute to the overall strategic direction of the organization. Apart from gatherings every six months, this group rarely meets or communicates.
It is a grouping, which might be bounded but does not have any ongoing goals or objectives that require members to work together. What about managers? Do they need to operate as teams, or can they operate effectively as groups? The Ashridge-based writers say that a management team does not necessarily have to be fully integrated as a team all of the time. Nor should it be reduced to a mere collection of individuals going about their own individual functional tasks.
Casey believes that there is a clear link between the level of uncertainty of the task being handled and the level of teamwork needed. The greater the uncertainty, the greater the need for teamwork. The majority of management teams deal with both uncertain and certain tasks, so need to be flexible about the levels of teamworking required. Decisions about health and safety, HR policy, reporting processes and recruitment are relatively certain, so can be handled fairly quickly without a need for much sharing of points of view.
There is usually a right answer to these issues, whereas decisions about strategy, structure and culture are less certain. There is no right answer, and each course of action involves taking a risk.
This means more teamworking, more sharing of points of view, and a real understanding of what is being agreed and what the implications are for the team. He uses baseball, American football and basketball teams to show the differences.
A baseball team is like a sales organization. Team members are relatively independent of one another, and while all members are required to be on the field together, they virtually never interact together all at the same time. There are really three subteams within the total team: offence, defence and the special team.
When the subteam is on the field, every player is involved in every play, which is not the case in baseball. But the teamwork is centred in the subteam, not the total team.
Basketball is a different breed. Here the team is small, with all players in only one team. Every player is involved in all aspects of the game, offence and defence, and all must pass, run, shoot.
When a substitute comes in, all must play with the new person. Many different types of team exist within organizations. Work team Work teams or work groups are typically the type of team that most people within organizations will think of when we talk about teams. They are usually part of the normal hierarchical structure of an organization. This means that one person manages a group of individuals, and that person is responsible for delivering a particular product or service either to the customer or to another part of the organization.
These teams tend to be relatively stable in terms of team objectives, processes and personnel. Their agenda is normally focused on maintenance and management of what is. This is a combination of existing processes and operational strategy.
Any change agenda they have is usually on top of their existing agenda of meeting the current operating plan.
Self-managed team A sub-set of the work team is the self-managed team. The self-managed team has the attributes of the work team but without a direct manager or supervisor.
This affects the way decisions are made and the way in which individual and team performance is managed. Generally this is through collective or distributed leadership. Once again there is an emphasis on delivery of service or product rather than delivering change. Parallel team Parallel teams are different from work teams because they are not part of the traditional management hierarchy.
They are run in tandem or parallel to this structure. They are often of a consultative nature, carrying limited authority. Although not necessarily responsible or accountable for delivering changes, they often feed into a change management process.
Project team Project teams are teams that are formed for the specific purpose of completing a project. They therefore are time limited, and we would expect to find clarity of objectives. The project might be focused on an external client or it might be an internal one-off, or cross-cutting project with an internal client group.
Depending on the scale of the project the team might comprise individuals on a full- or part-time basis. Individuals report to the project manager for the duration of the project although if they work part-time on the project they might also be reporting to a line manager.
The project manager reports to the project sponsor, who typically is a senior manager. We know the project team has been successful when it delivers the specific project on time, to quality and within budget. Brown and Eisenhardt noted that cross-functional teams, which are teams comprised of individuals from a range of organizational functions, were found to enhance project success.
Project teams are very much associated with implementing change. Matrix team Matrix teams generally occur in organizations that are run along project lines. The organization typically has to deliver a number of projects to achieve its objectives.
Each project has a project manager, but the project team members are drawn from functional areas of the organization. Often projects are clustered together to form programmes, or indeed whole divisions or business units for example, aerospace, defence or oil industry projects.
Thus the team members have accountability both to the project manager and to their functional head. Virtual team Increasing globalization and developments in the use of new technologies mean that teams are not necessarily co-located any more. This has been true for many years for sales teams.
Virtual teams either never meet or they meet only rarely. An advantage of virtual teams is that an organization can use the most appropriately skilled people for the task, wherever they are located. In larger companies the probability that the necessary and desired expertise for any sophisticated or complex task is in the same place geographically is low. Disadvantages spring from the distance between team members. Virtual teams cross time zones, countries, continents and cultures.
All these things create their own set of challenges. Current research suggests that synchronous working face-to-face or remote is more effective in meeting more complex challenges. Team leadership for virtual teams also creates its own issues, with both day-to-day management tasks and developmental interventions being somewhat harder from a distance. When it comes to change, virtual teams are somewhat paradoxical.
Team members can perhaps be more responsive, balancing autonomy and interdependence, and more focused on their part of the team objective. However, change creates an increased need for communication, clear goals, defined roles and responsibilities, and support and recognition processes. These things are more difficult to manage in the virtual world. Erich Barthel Building relationships and working in teams across cultures and Inger Buus Leading in a virtual environment write about this in more detail in Leadership and Personal Development Additionally they may wish to capture learning in one part of the organization and spread it across the whole organization.
We might have grouped virtual and networked teams under the same category. However, we could think of the networked team as being similar to a parallel team, in the sense that its primary purpose is not business as usual, but part of an attempt by the organization to increase sustainability and build capacity through increasing the reservoir of knowledge across the whole organization.
Networked teams are an important anchor for organizations in times of change. They can be seen as part of the glue that gives a sense of cohesion to people within the organization. Management team Management teams coordinate and provide direction to the sub-units under their jurisdiction, laterally integrating interdependent sub-units across key business processes. Mohrman et al, The management team is ultimately responsible for the overall performance of the business unit.
In itself it may not deliver any product, service or project, but clearly its function is to enable that delivery. Management teams are similar to work teams in terms of delivery of current operational plan, but are much more likely to be in a position of designing and delivering change as well.
It is in a pivotal position within the organization. On the one hand it is at the top of the organization, and therefore team members have a collective leadership responsibility; on the other, it is accountable to the non-executive board and shareholders in limited companies, or to politicians in local and central government, or to trustees in notfor-profit organizations. Along with the change team see below the management team has a particular role to play within most change scenarios, for it is its members who initiate and manage the implementation of change.
Change team Change teams are often formed within organizations when a planned or unplanned change of significant proportions is necessary. We have separated out this type of team because of its special significance. Sometimes the senior management team is called the change team, responsible for directing and sponsoring the changes. Sometimes the change team is a special project team set up to implement change. At other times the change team is a parallel team, set up to tap into the organization and be a conduit for feedback as to how the changes are being received.
Obviously different organizations have different terminologies, so what in one organization is called a project team delivering a change will be a change team delivering a project in another organization. More and more organizations also realize that the management of change is more likely to succeed if attention is given to the people side of change.
Hence a parallel team drawn from representatives of the whole workforce can be a useful adjunct in terms of assessing and responding to the impact of the changes on people. We see the change team as an important starting point in the change process. Research by one of the authors Green, a and Prosci , suggests the criticality of a credible effective dedicated change management team.
Justify your answer. They are: 1 team mission, planning and goal setting; 2 team roles; 3 team operating processes; 4 team interpersonal relationships; and 5 inter-team relations. If you can assess where a team is in terms of its ability to address these five elements, you will discover what the team needs to do to develop into a fully functioning team.
Team mission planning and goal setting A number of studies have found that the most effective teams have a strong sense of their purpose, organize their work around that purpose, and plan and set goals in line with that purpose. Clarity of objectives together with a common understanding and agreement of these was seen to be key. They also reported a 16 per cent average improvement in effectiveness for teams that use goal setting as an integral part of team activities.
Clear goals are even more important when teams are involved in change, partly because unless they know where they are going they are unlikely to get there, and partly because a strong sense of purpose can mitigate some of the more harmful effects of change. The downside occurs when a team rigidly adheres to its purpose when in fact the world has moved on and other objectives are more appropriate. Team roles The best way for a team to achieve its goals is for the team to be structured logically around those goals.
Individual team members need to have clear roles and accountabilities. They need to have a clear understanding not only of what their individual role is, but also what the roles and accountabilities of other team members are. When change happens — within, to or by the team — clarity about role has two useful functions.
It provides a clear sense of purpose and it provides a supportive framework for task accomplishment. However, during change the situation becomes more fluid. Too much rigidity results in tasks falling down the gaps between roles, or overlaps going unnoticed. It might result in team members being less innovative or proactive or courageous. Team operating processes A team needs to have certain enabling processes in place for people to carry out their work together.
Certain things are needed to allow the task to be achieved in a way that is as efficient and as effective as possible. Because of the tradition of autocratic leadership, neither participation nor collaboration are natural or automatic processes. Both require some learning and practice.
In the turbulence created by change, all these areas will come under additional stress and strain, hence the need for processes to have been discussed and agreed at an earlier stage. During times of change when typically pressures and priorities can push people into silo mentality and away from the team, the team operating processes can act like a lubricant, enabling healthy team functioning to continue. Team interpersonal relationships The team members must actively communicate among themselves.
To achieve clear understanding of goals and roles, the team needs to work together to agree and clarify them. Operating processes must also be discussed and agreed. To achieve this level of communication, the interpersonal relationships within the team need to be in a relatively healthy state.
In times of change, individual stress levels rise and there is a tendency to focus more on the task than the people processes. High levels of trust within a team are the bedrock for coping with conflict. However smart a team has been in addressing the previous four categories, the authors have found in consulting with numerous organizations that attention needs to be paid to inter-team relations now more than ever before. This is because of the rise of strategic partnerships and global organizations.
Teams need to connect more. It is also because the environment is changing faster and is more complex, so keeping in touch with information outside of your own team is a basic survival strategy. Tuckman is one of the most widely quoted of researchers into the linear model of team development. His work is regularly used in 85 Table 2. His basic premise is that any team will undergo distinct stages of development as it works or struggles towards effective team functioning.
If we were to take a logical rational view of the team we could imagine that this could all be accomplished relatively easily and relatively painlessly. And sometimes, on short projects with less than five team members, it is. However, human beings are not completely logical rational creatures, and sometimes this process is difficult. We all have emotions, personalities, unique characteristics and personal motivations. And the formation of a new team is about individuals adjusting to change in their own individual ways.
Initially the questions may be answered in rather a superficial fashion. The primary task of the team might be that which was written down in a memo from the departmental head, along with the structure they first thought of.
This is a description of the dynamic that occurs when a team of individuals come together to work on a common task, and have passed through the phase of being nice to one another and not voicing their individual concerns. This dynamic occurs as the team strives or struggles to answer fully the questions postulated in the forming stage. Individuals and the team as a whole are testing out the assumptions that had been made when the team was originally formed.
The storming phase — if successfully traversed — will achieve clarity on all the fundamental questions of the first phase, and enable common understanding of purpose and roles to be achieved. In turn it allows the authority of the team leader to be seen and acknowledged, and it allows everyone to take up his or her rightful place within the team. It also gives team members a sense of the way things will happen within the team.
It becomes a template for future ways of acting, problem solving, decision making and relating. Norming The third stage of team development occurs when the team finally settles down into working towards achievement of its task without too much attention needed on the fundamental questions. As further challenges develop, or as individuals grow further into their roles, then further scrutiny of the fundamental questions may happen.
They may be discussed, but if they instead remain hidden beneath the surface this can result in loss of attention on the primary task. Tuckman suggests in his review of the research that this settling process can be relatively straightforward and sequential.
The team moves through the storming phase into a way of working that establishes team norms. It can also be more sporadic and turbulent, with the team needing further storming before team norms are established.
Indeed some readers might have experienced teams that permanently move back and forth between the norming and storming stages — a clear signal that some team issues are not being surfaced and dealt with. The team has successfully traversed the three previous stages and therefore has clarity about its purpose, its structure and its roles.
It has engaged in a rigorous process of working out how it should work and relate together, and is comfortable with the team norms it has established. Not only has the team worked these things through, but it has embodied them as a way of working.
It has developed a capacity to change and develop, and has learnt how to learn. The team can quite fruitfully get on with the task in hand and attend to individual and team needs at the same time. Adjourning A fifth stage was later added that acknowledged that teams do not last for ever.
Some practitioners call this stage mourning, highlighting the emotional component. Others call it transforming as team members develop other ways of working. Known as a Group Relations Conference and run by the Tavistock Institute in London, this process involves a consultant who forms part of the group to offer views on the group process but otherwise takes no conscious part in the activity.
Group discussions take on a manic form with asinine comments and hysterical laughter … the participants attack the visiting consultant … becoming incredibly rude ….
Members try to replace the non-functioning consultant … but they rarely seem to be successful in this endeavour. They begin to pick on an individual, usually some highly individualistic or minority member of the group, and then treat this person as some kind of scapegoat. They all become very concerned with remaining part of the group, greatly fearing exclusion. They show strong tendencies to conform to rapidly established group norms and suppress their individual differences, perhaps they are afraid of becoming the scapegoat … the one thing they hardly do at all is to examine the behaviour they are indulging in, the task they have actually been given.
The situation described in the box offers a way of exploring some of the unconscious group processes that are at work just below the surface. These are not always visible in more conventional team situations. Alebiosu Azeez Olayinka. Charles Collins. Richard Oliver. Josef Ross. Eden Josephine L. Ajinkya Pande. Johevah Vidal.
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